their truths Sometimes the efficient and finall causes are linked together with a long chaine As Vnder the Aequator the aire is very hot because it is very subtill The aire is very subtill because the Sunne doth rarefie it very much The Sunne rarefies the aire because the beames fall in right angles The beames fall in right angles because the Sunne is there in the Zenith Thus it is in the finall cause The Lungs draw in the aire to refresh the heat of the heart The heat of the heart is refreshed to keepe the Temperature The Temperature is kept to preserue life So many causes so many demonstrations But the last where also the chiefest and last cause stands for the Meane is the noblest of all because it can no further be demonstrated and the two propositions are immediate every manner of way The fifth Chapter A speciall note to know a perfect Demonstration OF all the markes of a perfect Demonstration this is the most evident when it may be converâ—ed or reduced to a definition For we haue said heretofore that the definition of a proper accident is compounded of three parts namely L. 2. c. 8. of the Genus of that which is defined and of the proper subject and of the cause thereof As the definition of Death is the destruction of the life of the creature by the extinguishing of vitall heat Out of this definition a demonstration may be framed making the Subject of this accident to be the subject of the conclusion the Genus to be the attribute and the cause the Meane As thus Whensoever the vitall heat is extinguished life is destroyed But in a living creature the vitall heat is extinguished Therefore in a living creature life is destroyed The same may be said of these definitions following Sleepe is the heavinesse of a living creature by the cessation of the common sense Thunder is a noyse in the clouds by the breaking out of the fire The sixth Chapter Of an Imperfect Demonstration WEE haue shewed that a perfect demonstration is that which proveth by the next efficient or finall cause of the attribute that the attribute of the conclusion agrees with the subject If any of these perfections be wanting the demonstration is the weaker and lesse perfect If the Meane be not the next cause of the attribute but onely a remote cause then is the demonstration weaker and more imperfect And such demonstrations for the most part conclude negatiuely For example Where there is no opposition of contrary qualities there is no death But in the heavens there is no opposition of contrary qualities Therefore in heaven there is no death Or He that is of a cold temperature will never be bald But Eunuches are of a cold temperature Therefore Eunuches will never be bald In these demonstrations the propositions are not immediate For the Meane is not the next cause of the attribute To haue no contrary qualities is not the next cause of not dying but a remote cause for the next cause of not dying in mans body is the continual preservation of the humors in an equall temperature and the cause hereof is to haue no contrarietie or combate betweene the elementarie qualities in the bodie Thus the cause why Eunuches become not bald is become the radicall humor of the haires is not spent and the remote cause is because they haue but little heat In these demonstrations the propositions are not immediate for the Meane is not the next cause of the attribute And though the propositions be immediate yet if the Meane be not the cause but the effect of the attribute then it shall be a lesse perfect demonstration proving not the effect by the cause but the cause by the effect This kinde of demonstration shewes not why the conclusion is but onely that it is As All that loue God are beloved of God But all that haue faith in Christ loue God Therefore all that haue faith in Christ are beloved of God The Meane is to loue God which is not the cause but the effect of the loue which God beareth vnto vs which loue is the attribute of the conclusion in this demonstration wherein the cause is proved by the effect whereas in a perfect demonstration we proue effects by their causes Therefore this imperfect demonstration proveth onely that the thing is but sheweth not why it is The effect may very well be the cause of knowing but not of being As the smoake which we see come out of a chimney may be a cause to make vs know that there is fire in the house but it is not the cause of the fire but onely the effect And the vnequall beating of the pulse is not the cause of the Ague but it is a cause which makes vs know that such a one hath an Ague ¶ The sixt Booke OF SOPHISMES OR FALLACIES The first Chapter Of Fallacies in words ALL Fallacies or Sophismes committed in disputing are either in the Words or in the Matter Fallacies in words are of six kindes 1. Aequivocation 2. Amphibologie 3. Deceipt by Composition 4. Deceipt by Division 5. Deceipt in the Accent or Pronuntiation 6. And deceipt in the Figure of the word 1. Of Aequivocation Decipt by Aequivocation is when the Meane is a doubtfull word taken in the proposition one way and in the assumption another way As That which hath neither beginning nor ending God created not The roundnesse of the Heavens hath neither beginning nor ending Therfore the roundnesse of the Heavens God created not In the proposition beginning and ending is taken for continuance of time but in the assumption it is taken for the beginning and ending of a figure Or thus He that saith that thou liuest saith true He that saith that thou art a goose saith that thou livest Therefore he that saith that thou art a goose saith true In the proposition it is meant of an expresse saying but in the assumption of a saying by consequence Thus a man of great capacitie may be taken for a learned man and sometimes for one whose stomacke is able to containe much wine The same fallacie may be committed also when a word is otherwise taken in the propositions then in the conclusion 2. Of Amphibologie Amphibologie is an ambiguous constructioÌ„ making the sense doubtfull As Faith alone iustifieth It cannot be knowne whether the meaning be that faith being alone justifieth or els that faith justifieth onely In the first sense it is false for faith alone without good works is no true faith and by consequent justifieth not But in the second sense it is true that faith onely justifieth because it onely hath the propertie to justifie So it is true in one sense that the eye alone seeth but it is false in another sense that the eye seeth alone For an eye that is out of the head seeth not 3. The fallacie in Composition The fallacie in Composition is when things are taken as conjoyned which cannot be true but in
salt is said of the whole Sea and of every part of it but to encompasse the earth is attributed onely to the Sea as it is a Whole and therefore it is not attributed to any part of the Sea The Table of the Whole and Parts The Whole is composed of parts Formall Materiall which are among themselues alike vnlike integrall not integrall necessary for being well-being not necessary The eight Chapter Of Definition DEfinition is a speech which expresseth the essence of the thing The perfect definition of a Substance is that which is compounded of the next Genus and the specificall difference As the definition of a Plant is to be a bodie liuing a vegetatiue life of man to be a reasonable creature There are but few such Definitions because the formes and essentiall differences of substances are not so well knowne vnto vs. God onely who made them doth exactly know them The perfect definition of an Accident is compounded of three parts namely of the next Genus of the proper Subject and of the next Efficient or Finall cause As for example death is an accident whereof the Genus is the end or destruction of life the Subject is a liuing bodie and the next Efficient cause is the extinguishing of vitall heat This therefore is the perfect definition of death namely that it is the destruction of the life of a liuing bodie by extinguishing the vitall heat Thus are defined anger griefe sicknes thunder earthquake the Eclipse of the Moone and that of the Sunne Civil-warre respiration and divers other things whereof wee shall produce some examples in the end of this Chapter Now but Proper Accidents can be thus defined For mutable and casuall Accidents or such as haue no certaine knowne cause or that depend vpon the will of man cannot be exactly defined And therefore in stead of a Definition we describe them as well as we may expressing their Genus and some certaine propertie So whitenes is defined when we say that it is a most simple and most cleare colour And light is defined to be the chiefe of all whitenesses or the whitenes of the bodie of the Sunne sending forth his likenes through transparent bodies Naturall instruments as the eye and the hand or artificiall as a hammer or ana xe are defined by their Genus and by their fitnes for that vse for which they are ordained So the Eye is the instrument of seeing and a Hammer is an instrument to knocke withall Definition serveth to discourse and to argue by the meanes of this Maxime Maxime To whatsoever thing the definition agreeth vnto that same also the thing defined doth agree And reciprocally to whatsoever the defined thing agreeth to the same the definition agreeth also The Table of Definition Definition is either of a Substance which is composed of the Next Genus Difference Accident which is Proper defined by the Next Genus Proper subject Next cause Efficient Finall Improper or casuall defined as the Substance so far as may be Certaine examples of the definition of a Proper Accident THunder is a sound in the cloud by the breaking out of a flaming exhalation Death is the destruction of a living creature by extinguishing the vitall heat The Eclipse of the Moone is the darkning of the Moone by the interposition of the earth Anger is a perturbation of the mind arising from the opinion of a sustained wrong Civill warre is the trouble of an Estate arising from the discord of the parties Baldnes is the losse of the haire of the head through the want of radicall humour Respiration is the drawing in of aire into the lungs to refresh the heart Sicknes is an Indisposition of the bodie caused by the distemperature of the Humours The Earthquake is the stirring or moving of a part of the earth through the violence of winds therein enclosed Blindnes is a privation of light in the eye by the corruption of the instruments of seeing Sorrow is a griefe in the irascible facultie through the griefe of some evill The Eclipse of the Sunne is the darkning of the aire by the interposition of the Moone The ninth Chapter Of Division THere are divers sorts of Divisions For either we divide the Genus into the Species or the Whole into the Parts or the Substance into divers Accâ—dents or an Accident into divers Subjects or a Word into divers significations 1. First we divide a Genus into the Species As a liuing creature into man and beast Actions into naturall and voluntarie 2. Or els we divide the Whole into Parâ—s So man is divided into Soule and bodie A house into the foundations walls and roofe Which division is made either in thought or in deed 3. Or els we divide the Subject into divers Accidents As when we divide men into free and bond into males or females into fooles or wisemen 4. Or els we divide an Accident into other Accidents As when we divide Physicians into rich and poore ones souldiers into great or little ones strong or weake 5. Or els we divide Accidents into divers Subjects As sicknes into the sicknes of the bodie and sicknes of the soule So we may divide corruption into the corruption of simple bodies or into the corruption of mixt or compounded bodies 6. Or we divide an Aequivocall word into divers significatioÌ„s As the word linke which signifieth a Sausage a Torch and a linke of a chaine Rules for Division 1. A good division must haue but few parts and those opposit if it may be As animal is divided into reasonable and vnreasonable Number into even and odd A line into straight and crocked But that is not alwayes possible As when we divide the externall senses into fiue And France into seventeene governements 2. In a Division nothing must be either superfluous or wanting As if a man should say that the senses are hearing seeing smelling and the two eyes there were in such a Division something wanting and something superfluous 3. The parts of a Division must not over-reach one another As who should say that all cloathing of the bodie is either garments or habillements or gownes Or that Iustice consisteth in three things to liue honestly to hurt no bodie to giue every man his owne In these divisions the parts are but little or not at all differing and are in a manner the same thing The Table of Division Division is of the Genus into the Species Whole into the Parts Subject into Accidents Accidents into divers Subjects Aequivocall word into divers significations The tenth Chapter Of things Coupled called in Latin Conjugata COupling is considered either in Words or in Things Words coupled or conjoyned are such as come from the same beginning and differ in termination As iust iustice iustly white whiting to white whitenes The linke and affinitie of which words is grounded vpon some affinitie which is in the nature of the things signified by these words But there are certaine things coupled in
differing which the vulgar take for the same things and none but Philosophers doe distinguish them As loue and friendship continencie and temperance the flatterer and the man-pleaser memory and remembrance chance and fortune hate and envie whose differences are learned by the Ethicks and Physicks Similitudes are rather ornaments of a speech then any proofes As when we say Even as cracks in a vessell are knowne when the vessell is filled with liquor So the secret vices of the heart are discovered by plentie and prosperitie And that Hypocrites are like vnto Bees which haue hony in the mouth and a sting in the tayle And that covetous persons are like vnto Christmas-boxes out of the which money cannot be gotten â—efore they be broken And false frieâ—ds are lâ—ke vnto Swalloweâ— that dâ—part from vs in hard weather Metaphors well drawne are similitudes reduced to one word As when we say to feed the flocke that is to teach and to staine ones reputation that is to say to backbite Similitudes haue two parts the proposition and the reddition The proposition namely this even as swallowes c. The reddition as this So false friends c. Examples are taken from things done and from humane actions but Similitudes are oftentimes drawne from things fained and from that which is observed in nature Now to argue from the like wee vse this probable Maxime Maxime To things alike agree things alike EXAMPLES OF ANALOGIE The Analogie between an Animal and a Plant. In an Animal In a Plant. The skinne The barke or rinde The heart The pith or marrowe The armes The branches The mouth The roote The excrements The leaues and gumme The veines The graine of the wood The Analogie between mans bodie and a Common-wealth or Estate In Man In an Estate The head The Prince The eye The Councell The armes The souldiers and trads-men The belly The idle persons The sinewes The money The joynts Concord and good order The Analogie between a building and a mans bodie In a building In Mans bodie The kitchin The belly The kitchin kniues The teeth The studie The braine The windowes The eyes The fiue dores The fiue instruments of the senses The Master of the house The soule The sinke The conduits of the excrements The Analogie between the indispositions of the Bodie and of the Soule In the Bodie In the Soule Blindnes Ignorance Paine Griefe The dropsie Covetousnesse The itch Impatience Swelling Pride A fit of an ague Choler Shaking Feare Contagious aire Bad examples Painting Hypocrisie Collicks Troubles of conscience Weaknesse Pusillanimitie The foureteenth Chapter Of things Opposit OPposites are such as cannot stand together in the same subject at the same time and in the same regard As a man cannot be at the selfe same time both white and blacke in the same part of his bodie and not compared to other things though he may be blacke and white in divers parts of his bodie either at divers times or comparatiuely white in respect of a Moore and blacke in respect of a Swan There are foure sorts of Opposits 1. Relatiues 2. Contraries 3. Privatiues 4. Contradictories 1. Of Relatiues Relatiues wee haue alreadie spoken lib. 1. cap. 7. 2. Contraries Contraries are two qualities or two actions which being vnder the selfe same Genus are most remote one from the other and are incompatible As blacke and white haue the same Genus namely colour Vertue and vice are specieses of habits which being vnder the same Genus are of a contrarie nature Contraries are either Mediate or Immediate Thus there is a middle between black and white namely pale and browne and between hot and cold there is lukewarme But between the number even and odd between the straight and crooked line there is no third The middle or meane doth vsually participate of the two contrary extreames the meane between good and bad actions excepted For the meane is that which is called an Indifferent action participating neither of good nor evill Between two contrary vices vertue is the meane As between covetousnesse and prodigalitie there is liberalitie and good husbandrie between rashnesse and cowardnesse there is valour This mediocritie or meane participating of two extreames is not in the vertue it selfe for that hath no participation with vice but it is in those actions and things about which vertue is occupied As to avoid danger and to lay out money For these actions partly imitate the covetous man and partly the liberall And it fals out oftentimes that to each of the extreames there is a contrary vertue as to prodigalitie good husbandry to covetousnesse liberalitie so cowardnesse and rashnesse are two extreames and to cowardnesse valour is contrary and to rashnesse discretion If two contraries happen to be vnder two next differing Genuses as iustice vnder vertue and iniustice vnder vice these two Genuses must needs be contraries one to another and Species of the same Genus By this meanes all contraries if they be not vnder the same next Genus they are vnder the same remote Genus Words are sometimes wanting to expresse one of the contraries Thus we haue no word to expresse the habit contrarie to an ague nor to a rheume nor to the Physicks nor to Grammar 3. Privatiue Privatiues opposits are a qualitie and the absence and privation of that qualitie As light and darkenes sight and blindnesse There can be no privation when the subiect is not capable of the contrary qualitie Thus in a stone there is no blindnesse because it is not capable of sight And a childe in the wombe cannot be said to be blind nor a whelp before it be nine daies old because they are not come to that time wherin they should see The privation of Actions may be remedied and recovered As the privation of the act of seeing is recovered when he that sleepeth openeth his eyes to see But the privation of the Facultie of seeing is irrecoverable Knowledge and ignorance simple and childish or brutish are opposits privatiuely But wilfull ignorance that armes it selfe with reasons against the truth is opposed vnto knowledge as a contrary and not as a privation 4. Contradictories Contradictories are such betweene which there is no meane or middle As to be and not to be man and no man horse and no horse For there is nothing that is not either man or not man horse or not horse Now when we will argue and proue any thing Opposits are of great vse The Maximes Maximes are these 1. Whosoever grants one of the relatiues doth necessarily grant the other As he that calleth such a one a father affirmeth that he hath a childe 2. One and the same thing may be two relatiues As to be a father and sonne master and servant right and left but in divers respects 3. Contrary things haue a contrary consequence As vice makes a man wretched therefore vertue maketh him happie Here are excepted such things as doe belong to the Genus
a divided sense As in this proposition A man that is set may runne Which is true if it be meant at divers times but if it be meant at the same time it is false and impossible For a man that is set cannot runne whilest he is sitting So that men are male and female is true of divers persons but false if it be meant of the same persons 4. Of the fallacie by Division This fallacie of Division is contrary to the former For this separateth things which cannot be true except they be joyned together Thus though it be true that two and three make fiue yet it followeth not that two or three are fiue If a man should say This wall is white therefore this wall is this consequence were good because to be white is an accident which could not be if the subject were not But if one should say Philip is dead therefore Philip is the consequence were not good because that to be dead is not an accideÌ„t but a privation which presupposeth that the subject namely Philip was but now is no more Whosoever therefore argueth thus divideth that which cannot be true except it be joyned This division may happen somtimes in one word onely As Ingeniosus being taken for one word is a commendation but divided into two as Ingenio sus it is a reproach 5. Of the fallacie in the Accent or Pronuntiation The fallacie in the Accent is when a false thing is affirmed vnder colour of pronouncing it as another thing that is true For example Where no ach is there needs no salue In the Gout there is no H. Therefore in the Gout there needs no salue Againe if a man should say I am hot are you as hot Or I am cold are you as cold A man cannot distinguish in fast speaking of it whether he saith a sot in stead of as hot Or a scould in stead of as cold But being written a man shall easily perceiue this fallacie This fallacie is also coÌ„mitted when that which is spoken positiuely is taken as if it were spoken by Interrogation As if a man commanding say to another Rest you and he taking it Interrogatiuely should answer No. 6. Of the fallacie in the Figure of the word The fallacie in the figure of the word is when from the Gender or Number of the word or because the Verbe is Actiue or Passiue a man will inferre that the nature of the thing is such For example if a man should argue that Prudence Temperance or Iustice are onely proper and peculiar vnto women because they are of the feminine gender which no way followeth So likewise because to heare and to see be not Passiues it followeth not that therfore hearing and seeing are no Passiues And although I say that I haue received letters from my brother it followeth not that I haue received more then one though the word be Plurall The second Chapter Of Fallacies in the Matter THere are seaven fallacies in the Matter that is to say when the deceipt lyeth not in the words but in the ignorance or disguising of the thing These fallacies are 1. The fallacie by Accident 2. The fallacie which taketh a thing as spoken simply or absolutely which is true onely in some respect 3. The Supposing of that which is in question 4. The fallacie of Inconsequence 5. The fallacie whereby a thing is taken for a cause which is not a cause 6. The fallacie which mingleth divers questions as if they were but one 7. The Ignorance of that which contradicteth the question The third Chapter The fallacie by Accident THe fallacie by Accident is when from an assumption which is true onely by accident a conclusion is drawne which is absolute simple and without restraint As in this argument That which stirres vp troubles in a Common-wealth is pernicious The Gospell stirres vp troubles in a Common-wealth Therefore the Gospell is pernicious Thus the Sunne darkeneth the eye-sight and the law of God hardeneth the sinner Whence if a man would inferre that the Sunne were the cause of darkenesse or that the Law were the câ—use of sinne he should fall into the fallacie of the Accident For the Gospell of it owne nature stirreth vp no troubles seing it preacheth peace but men take occasion thereby to rise vp against it Neither doth the Sunne blind the eyes by nature but by accident when it meeteth with a weake eye-sight The fourth Chapter The fallacie which taketh a thing as simply true which is not so but onely in some respect THis fallacie is committed when one of the propositions being true onely in part or in some respect wee labour to draw from thence a conclusion to make it true at all times in all respects and in every part As Every good thing is to be desired Wealth is a good thing Therefore wealth is to be desired The assumption is true in some respect onely and to some men For riches are not good but to good men and to such as can vse them well And so in this Syllogisme He that is borne of a woman had a beginning Our Saviour Christ was borne of a woman Therefore our Saviour Christ had a beginning The fift Chapter Of the Supposing of that which is in Question VVE suppose that which is in question when wee make a Syllogisme wherein one of the propositions is the same thing which is in question though it be couched in other termes As if I would prooue thaâ— the world was not created because God made it not Or if I would proue that men are iust because they are without sinne that were to proue a thing by it selfe The sixt Chapter Of the fallacie of Inconsequence THe fallacie of Inconsequence is when we breake the rules which are set downe in the Chapter of the conversion of Enuntiations and in the Chapter of Hypotheticall Syllogismes For â—â—ample wee said in the fourth Chaptâ—â— of the third Booke that an vniversall affirmatiue enuntiation cannot be converted into any other proposition but into a particular affirmatiue or into an vniversall having two negatiues As All men are living creatures is thus converted Some living creature is a man Or into this Whatsoever is not a living creature is not man Againe we said that in Hypotheticall Syllogismes we may proceede from the establishing of the Antecedent to the establishing of the Consequent And that we may proceede from the over-throwing of the Consequent to the over-throwing of the Antecedent Now if any would dispute contrary to these Rules saying All men are living creatures therefore all living creatures are men Or All men are living creatures therefore all that is not man is not a living creature he should fall into the fallacie of a bad Consequence The same fallacie is committed if you argue thus If Bucephalus be a man he is a living creature But he is a living creature Therefore he is a man Or thus If Bucephalus be a man he is a living creature But he is not