of these or the like be answered it is an oath whosoever useth such form is ipso facto obliged and if he perform not the thing promised guilty of perjury But in this now Will you give me an hundred I will give you them the very words adding no further confirmation of faith make but a bare Promise You told me you would give me an hundred will you give me them Certainly I will Believe me I will not deceive you Here some kinde of confirmation is added unto the promise but it is plain by the very form that this is but a meer Asseveration neither an Oath nor so much as an Obtestation seeing God is neither called to witnesse nor any other pawn of faith engaged How shall I know that you will give me that hundred which you promised Here 's my hand By the faith of an honest man I will give you them As truly as the Sun shineth I will doe it Never believe me more if I dot not c. The words themselves shew that they contain more then a bare asseveration but they are not an oath yet These therefore are rather Obtestations wherein for further Confirmation of a matter promised or assevered we interpose something which is dear unto us or certain and manifest unto all as a pawn of our faith Wherefore if it plainly appear by the meer form that the thing assumed for confirmation of the promise be properly an Oath a bare Asseveration or an Obtestation there needeth no furâ—her â—xamination SECT VI. BUt because it happeneeh very often through the resemblance of some ambiguous or large signification of a word or some other cause that it cannot certainly be judged by the words uttered whether it be an oath or no in the second place we must be attentive unto the proper and genuine sense of those words and from thence make the Judgement For it may appear by the forms that all those speeches which appeal unto the Name of God or wherein the Greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 the Latine Per or the English By are used with the accusative case are formally oathes Led by which reason only Soto conceived so much difference between the terms By my faith and In faith By my troth and In troth that he determined those to be formally oathes these none But if the genuine sense of the words be well looked into there will be no difference between the Propositions By and In being applyed unto the same thing for we are to judge of them as the thing they are applyed unto is Sacred or Civill The form By God is properly an oath by vertue of the words for the Name of God is a sacred thing and he who speaketh after that manner calleth God to witnesse But that By my faith though by the custom of some Countrey or intention of him who speaketh it may be an oath is no oath by vertue of the words but a meer Asseveration or at the most an Obtestation Because humane faith is not a sacred but a civill thing and he who speaketh after that manner calleth not God to witnesse but speaketh as he believeth or declareth that the thing is uttered with serious and sincere deliberation of minde For the genuine Interpretation of the words By my faith whether in an assertory or promissory matter is this I speak from my heart I tell you my very thought I pawn my faith to you that the thing is so If to my knowledge I deceive you let me never be believed more c. Wherefore the interposition of faith maketh not an oath by vertue of the words unlesse perhaps it recall us to some oath which we have formerly made As in this University when a man is required to answer unto a question by vertue of his Oath according to this form You shall speak by your faith given unto this University And when Convocations are solemnly called whereunto the Doctors Masters Regent and Non-Regent are warned by the Beadles to repair Per fidem per fidem per fidem The like in my opinion though others I know think otherwise is to be said of that of Paul By our rejoycing which I have in Christ I dye daily to wit that it is properly no oath but a serious asseveration only that as he was subject unto death so he was daily prepared for death when it should please God to call him SECT VII NOw it may perhaps by so much as hath been said be conveniently determined what is to be thought of those words whereupon Interpreters variously dispute of Joseph unto his Brethren By the life of Pharaoh ye are Spies Some are of opinion that Joseph having been long conversant with Pharaohs Courtiers as infected with a touch of their disease began to savour at the least in this point of their manners and example the AEgyptians being accustomed to swear by the Kings life as the Romans in latter ages were by the Genius of the Emperour But I cannot easily suffer my self to judge otherwise of the words and actions of men famous for piety then necessity compelleth I see divers of the Antients in contributing unto the fame of the Saints too indulgent unto their own wits whilest they would cover apparent defects with specious excuses An error much more pardonable then theirs who in this Age delighted with the contrary love to be curious enquirers into the faults of devout men and lest matter should be wanting unto calumny by perverting blamelesse actions bestow cracks upon Crystall glasses as it were in the washing Others allow a more favourable Interpretation unto the speech of Joseph that he used for once only this form of swearing familiar unto the Courtiers as an accomplishment of his disguise and that he might more skilfully represent the person of an AEgyptian Prince which he counterfeited lest he should be discovered by his Brethren But I doe not like to lay this burthen though somewhat lighter upon the shoulders of the most holy man without any necessity The third opinion is theirs who absolve Joseph from all guilt but with this reason that they think it was lawfull for any man before Christ forbad that kinde of oath to swear by the creature Which opinion I confesse so far as it acquitteth Joseph of sin I allow but of the reason for it I cannot allow For first it appeareth not that Christ did more especially forbid oathes by creatures then such as are made by God for he generally prohibited the unnecessary ones of either kinde A new prohibition of that which was alwayes unlawfull would have been needlesse And that which he spake of oathes by the creature in particular tendeth to shew that this kind of oath once made contrary to what the Jews thought of it is no lesse obligatory then those which are made by the Name of God expressed Secondly neither is it true that it was lawfull before Christ for pious men by any dispensation or divine indulgence to swear by the creature seeing
they think themselves bound to quit themselves of their faith engaged by performance of the same The second that unl esse corrupt affections be vigorously withstood that spark which is left in us of naturall light will goe near to be altogether extinguished by them or so raked up in that heap that we shall rather give our mindes artificially to palliate then sincerely to avoid perjury Thirdly that he who desireth to keep himself free from all spot of perjury must diligently ponder every word in its own strength and sense of the oath which he is to take that if it ought not to be kept it may not be taken or if it be fit to be taken it may be fulfilled without deceit or simulation for unadvisedly to chop up holy things is impious and too late when they are once swallowed to chew them And so much for the first doubt which amounteth unto this sum That the words of an oath where they are so clear in themselves that amongst honest men there can be no question of their meaning the party swearing is obliged in that sense which they apparently afford and may not either in swearing or when he hath sworn stretch those words upon the Last of his interest by any studyed Interpretation SECT VIII THe second doubt is where the sense of the words is in question and the Cases are three The first of spontaneous oaths as in promises proceeding from the meer motion of good will and a kinde of liberty of the minde rather then duty of right or respect The common and true answer is that these promises are to be taken according to the intention of the party swearing because every man is the best interpreter of himself For example if any of us should binde our selves by a vow or promise to give unto the poor of a Village or Collector for them ten shillings a month if the poor seeing month as we use it is an ambiguous word should by the promise pretend unto the first pension upon the 28. day of January and so for the rest of the months upon the same day taking a month for the space of four weeks which is one signification of the word and he on the other side should say that it was not due till the last of January and so forth taking month for the twelfth part of a year according to the distribution of the year in the Calender which is another signification of the word it were most just that the ambiguity should be interpreted rather in his sense then theirs because that Pension was not due in justice and before the promise but in charity and by vertue of the free promise without agreement or contract And of this kinde of oath ought these words to be understood which are cited in the glosse upon the Canon Law It is manifest that God taketh not the oath as he unto whom it is sworn but as he who sweareth understandâ—th the same But that this may rightly be apprehended two things are observable One that it holdeth especially in spontaneous oathes and promises for in such as are required the reason differeth as shall be said anon The other that the party swearing is in the present case obliged to hold unto his promise in that sense which he either really intended when he sware or was willing the Auditors should beleive And not in any which he shall please afterwards to impose For God who beholdeth the heart is not deluded by words Nor ought the intention to serve the words but the words the intention SECT IX THe second case is of oathes and promises which are offered unto or required of the party swearing whether of right or under pretence of right such especially as Rulers of authority command their Subjects or Laws ordain as with us those of Supremacy and Allegiance those which the Statutes of the University require of Graduates and the like Also those which either party in lawfull Covenants demandeth of the other or are used in Bargains Leagues and other mutuall Contracts for the confirmation of mutuall faith For answer in this case I say that this kinde of oath ought regularly to be understood in that sense which the party unto whom the oath is made seemeth probably to intend so that the party swearing is bound under pain of perjury to fulfill his promise if it be lawfull and honest according to the intention of the deferent The words are understood according to the minde and intention of him to whom the oath is made saith the Lawyer The reason is because this kinde of oath is taken to the end he to whom it is sworn may by interposition of the same be assured that the promise of the party swearing shall be performed unto him but he would be no whâ—t the more assured of that performance if the words were to be interpreted at the will of the party swearing and not according to his own sense for there is a different nature of obligation where debt is claimed by promise and where promise is claimed by debt God himself who is by Law no mans debtor maketh himselfe through his free promises our debtor and he who obligeth himself by a voluntary vow oath or promise unto any deed of Charity ipso facto contracteth debt But because this debt is not founded upon his right unto whom the promise is made but floweth meerly from the free act of the party promising it is most just that he should be his own Interpreter who is most concerned to know how much how far and in what sense he intended to oblige himself On the other side where the promise is founded upon some antecedent right either that of subjection and duty by Superior Authority or of Justice and contract by agreement between parties Because he to whom the promise is made hath right to enquire the same and is most concerned that it be faithfully performed reason requireth that the obligation of the promise should rather be judged according to his mind and interpretation then by the sense of the party promising SECT X. THe third case is where the Deferent offering an oath of ambiguous sense desireth only that the words be sworn leaving it unto the judgement of the party swearing to take them in what sense he pleaseth I say it may very well be suspected that some deceit is couched in them and that a pious prudent man ought therefore to refuse an oath proffered upon such conditions which I shall make good by a threefold proof First in regard of the oath it selt in which the first thing required is truth for a speech of indefinite and ambiguous sense before it be distinguished is no true proposition indeed no proposition seeing a proposition as by the definition thereof is known even to children ought to signifie a truth or falsehood without ambiguity Secondly in regard of him to whom it is sworn For the proper end of an oath is that he to whom it is made may have
all obligation both towards God and man Fifthly I say that solution of the Bond by Relaxation of the party extendeth so far as pleaseth the party relaxing As if Caius have sworn to pay Titius an hundred pounds and Titius have afterwards remitted fifty pounds the obligation is not wholly absolved but in part That is the bond as to the fifty pound remitted is void but it remaineth good as to the fifty pound not remitted Again if Caius have sworn to pay Titius an hundred pounds within 20 dayes and Titius perceiving that Caius cannot without inconvenience unto himself pay the mony at the time appointed give him other twenty days This Relaxation made by Dilation or propagation of the time remitteth so much of the obligation that he is not bound to pay the money within the time limited by his oath yet he is bound and that by vertue of his first oath to make payment within forty dayes Sixtly I say that Relaxation by a party is of force so far as that party is concerned but is not of force to the prejudice of a third person The reason is because any man may by act remit as much of his own right as he pleaseth but no man can diminish the right of another without his knowledge and against his will Let men therefore so recede from their own that the rights of others receive no detriment Thus Abraham Gen. 14. receded from his right when after the victory won upon the four Kings he bestowed his whole share of the spoyl upon the King of Sodome reserving unto the three Commanders his fellows in arms their due proportions Whence Caius sworn to pay an hundred pound unto Titius and Julius if Titius pardon him his part of the debt he is absolved as to that which was due unto Titius but remaineth bound as to that which is due unto Julius Upon the same ground Relaxation by consent of the parties availeth nothing in Contracts of Marriage because therein mans profit is not regarded only but the Ordinance of God also to whom great injury would be done if that contract though with mutuall consent of the party should be violated For the vertue and and efficacy which this Relaxation whereof we now speak hath to null obligation supposeth that act which introduced obligation to have considered nothing else but the good and profit only of the party relaxing If any other party be by right of his own interessed that the obligation should not be remitted the obligation is not remitted SECT IX NOw the sum of what hath been said concerning Solution of the Bond in an Oath is briefly this That the Bond of an Oath cannot be released by Dispensation of any Superiour or Commutation so as to free the Conscience of the party swearing from performance of the promise but may neverthelesse be rescinded and made void by a Superiour having lawfull authority cease through defect of the matter or be relaxed by him unto whom the promise was made so as to lose all strength of obligation The promise which I made at my entrance upon the Office of Publique professor being now by Gods assistance performed according to my talent with as much brevity pâ—rspicuity and fidelity as I have been able I thought fit to adde some few admonitions concerning the use and abuse of Oathes as Corollaries whereby our lives and Consciences may be profitably directed not by way of exhortation as they use in Sermons but remembring I teach in the School and not in the Church by way of Thesis or practicall Conclusions briefly proposed and clearly explained SECT X. THe first Conclusion is against Anabaptists and Socinians That the use of Oathes is lawfull I prove it first by the practise in the Old Testament The godly Patriarchs sware Controversies were determined by oath according to the Institution of Moses in the Law the Prophets prescribed the condition of oathes to be observed Nor can any just reason be rendered why this should be lawfull for the pious under the Old and not for the faithfull under the New Testament seeing it is apparent from the end of an oath whose use is perpetuall that it appertaineth not unto the Ceremoniall Law abrogated by Christ and from the form which seemeth to have nothing common with the type I prove it secondly by the example of God of Angels of Apostles those being often introduced in holy Scripture swearing after the manner of men these Historically Thirdly by the custome of all Nations who directed by the light of Nature have judged the bond of an oath for the convenience of Civill Society the surest confirmation of Faith then which there can be no clearer discovery of the Law of Nature Fourthly from the end of an oath which is the confinmation of truth in doubtfull matters where all other proofs are defiâ—int which end seeing it is necessary for the composing and determination of Controversies it must needs be that the necessary means unto the end should be at the least lawfull Fifthly from the nature of an oath containing nothing in it self which is intrinsecally evill for neither is a religious act evill nor the Confirmation of a doubtful thing evill nor Invocation of Divine testimony evill of which members the essentiall definition of an oath consisteth SECT XI THe second Conclusion The use of Oathes in common discourse is unlawfull The first proof is from the nature of an oath Because every religious act being a part of Divine Wotship ought to be performed with due reverence and with some both preparation and attention all which must needs be far off when oathes are rashly scattered without judgement or heedlesly without consideration The second from the end which is the confirmation of a doubtfull businesse seeing our ordinary discourse is for the most part upon frivolous matters which either are not doubtfull or not of moment to require religious confirmation or if they were would be little more credited for his oath who maketh swearing his common custome for such will be assoon believed if that which they say seem true without an oath or if otherwise no whit the sooner for swearing The third from the Cause whence such kinde of Oathes are derived which is either a vitious habit contracted by long and pernicious custome which habit is the fruit and mark of a profane if not Atheisticall heart or some exorbitant perturbation of the mindâ— as excessive anger intemperate joy with which whilest the minde boyles the mouth foameth to the dishonour of God and at which those words of James seem peculiarly to aim Chap. 5. vers 1â— But above all things my Brethren swear not neither by Heaven neither by the Earth In the foregoing verâ—es he exhorteth the faithfull to suffer injuries with patience and in the following vâ—râ—e teacheth the Christian how to entertain himself whether he be sad or cheerfull a place worthy to be the exercise of learned men and something more diligently considered then as yet it hath been by
otherwise not unlearned to become tâ—e more foolish who whilest following Thomas and Scotus and many more he compiled Commentaries upon the four books of Sentences growing weary forsooth of the termes used in the Schooles as lesse Ciceronian for Church Flowers of Rhetorick chose rather to say Senate for Ecclesiasticall Lawes Senate-decrees for predestination presignation for ordination of Priests initiation for Angell Genius for Bishop flamen and the like being all to besprinkled over with such kinde of powder Of this disease also I finde Cardinal Peter Bembo and Sebastian Castalian somewhat â—ick with others but those few and more moderately We will not we may not be so elegant An Oratour deserveth pardon nay ought to be praised when he is industrious in the choice of his words if he speak not only aptly and clearly but also with purity and ornament it is his vertue who sometimes mis-becometh not his flowry Chaplet and embroidery But a Philosopher or Divine especially in Scholastick Meditations and knots of controversie becomes a curious and adorned stâ—le as the laborious Oxe would embossed Trappings The materials upon which we labour being contented only to be taught neither requireth ornament nor will endure it To be conversant in the Pulpit and in the School is not the same and it is another thing to have a large field where the fluency of speech may finde room and nourishment and to be entangled in bryers from which by any means to redeem a mans self without bloud and wounds is a great triumph But why do I trouble my self with these things If I use such words and expressions as are usuall in this kinde of discourse as I must necessarily doe I am lesse doubtfull of your excuse in that then fearâ—ull that the prolixity of my excuse it self may stand in need of another pardon wherefore I leave Oratory and hast to my Hypotheses SECT II. OF which let this be first Simplicity above all things becometh an Oath That is to say such is the nature and obligation of an oath as whosoever bindeth himself to the performance of any thing by so sacred a bond is wholly bound by the religion of his oath both in his minde seriously to intend and as far as lieth in his power willingly to endevour that he may faithfully perform whatsoever he hath promised without fraud deceipt double dealing or simulation Cicero as in most things of this kinde is right in this What promise soever thou shalt expresly make as in the presence of God is to be stoâ—d unto He who shall do otherwise being carelesse of the reall performance of that whereunto he is obliged by an oath is judged here by Moses to have broken his word that is basely and unworthily to have violated a sacred thing and such an one as ought not rashly to be profaned and to be guilty of evident or dissembled perjury For seeing that there be three sorts of perjury whereof the first is almost peculiar unto Assertory Oathes viz. when a man swears that to be true which he either beleeves to be false or doubteth at the least whether it be true or no the other two appertain unto the Promissory to wit the second when a man promiseth that by an oath which he meaneth not to performe and the third when he endevoureth not to perform that which he promised and intended as to the guilt of perjury especially at the Bar of Conscience it matters not much which way any of the three be committed openly or covertly that being a symptome of a profane this of a deceitfull heart both which except fraud be worthy of a greater hatred are equally abominable unto the most holy God who loveth the single in heart and truth in the inward man But such as turn aside unto their crooked waies that is Hypocrites and deceitfull persons the Lord shall lead them forth with the workers of iniquity that is account of them no better then of such as are openly profant and impious SECT III. UNto this simplicity of Oathes two kindes of simulation are repugnant one a parte ante either preceding or accompanying the act of swearing the other a parte post or following the act of which though the former be worst neither is void of perjury David seemeth to comprehend both in diâ—tinct but parallel places viz. Psal. 15. and Psal. 24. In one of which to the question Who shall ascend into the Hill of the Lord Amongst other things he maketh this answer He that hath not sworn deceitfully that is who did not swear with an intention to deceive where all simulation a parte ante to wit about the timâ— and in the act of swearing is excluded In the other two a like question Who shall abide in thy holy tabernacle Amongst other things he returns an answer not much different from the former He that sweareth to his own hurt and changeth not that is who after he had obliged himself by an oath had rather perform that though to his great losse which he hath inconveniently sworn then violate his faith for any worldly profit where all simulation a parte post is excluded These things seem to me either not at all to be thought upon or not seriously by most men of these times who unto all be it what it will that is proposed by such as are able to hurt fear not without difficulty to make a full and formall oath nay rather think themselves only wise and not without some contempt deride the simplicity and vain fears of others who that they may not hurt their consciences seek a knot forsooth in a bul-rush and ravell into the forms prescribed by such as can prescribe In the mean while they rest secure absolving themselves from all guilt and fear of perjury and think they have excellently provided for themselves and consciences if during the act of swearing they can make any shift to defend themselves either as the Jesuites doe with some equivocation or mentall reservation or by forcing upon the words some subtle and unnaturall interpretation or after they have sworne they can finde some loop-hole or artificiall evasion whereby such art may be usâ—d with the oath that the words remaining the sense may be eluded with some sophisme and the strength utterly lost The ancient Christians did not acknowledge this kinde of Theologie nor the sounder Heathens this morall Philosophy Far otherwise out of those Augustine said they are perjured who preserving the words deceive the expectation of them to whom they have sworn And out of these otherwise Cicero Whatsoever is so sworn as the minde of him who took the oath may conceive what ought to be performed that is to be stood unto SECT IV. BUt that I may not seem to declaim or contend with authority only I will prove by some reasons that Perjury is not taken away by either kinde of simulation The first reason Of those many places of Scripture out of which singlenesse of heart as in all divine
worship so in the duties of our lives especially in contracts promises vowes and oathes is enjoyned The present text that I may omit others requireth of him who taketh an oath in expresse termes that he do according to all that proceedeth out of his mouth Ut omnino faciat that is that both at that time he faithfully intend to do and afterwards to his power faithfully endevour to do according to all that proceedeth out of his mouth that is according to the sense which the words by him uttered after the common and received manner of speech bear in the understanding of the Auditors and not according to that sense which he perhaps during the act of swearing in his secret thoughts reserveth unto himself and fraudulently intendeth Whereunto that agreeth which is brought out of Isidorus With what artifice of words soever a man swear God who is witnesse of his conscience taketh the same as he understandeth it to whom the oath is made and not according to the sense which the party sworne when he begins to repent of the fact goeth about to invent for fashion sake as they speak not fully and sincerely to perform the faith of his oath as he ought but that he may after a sort appear unto himself and others to have performed his duty and with this artifice very warily and providently to â—ave avoided the crime of perjury SECT V. THE second Reason is drawn from the example of God himself who as the Apostle writes Heb. 6. for this very cause confirmed his promises made unto the faithfull by an oath that he might witnesse unto them more abundantly that is as fully as could possibly be and so as might leave no place to doubt the immutability of his counsels in fulfilling of that which he had sworn to perform and all this to the end that they who should beleeve might have a strong consolation and firm trust in him which neverthelesse they could not have if it were not impossible for God to lie or deceive them to whom he had sworn by frustrating their expectation But he would deceive and frustrate the hope and consolation in him of beleevers if either whilest he sware he intended not to doe aâ— he promised or afterwards changing his minde should noâ— perform iâ— in due time nor after the same sense in which his promises were by thâ—m according to the tenor of the words rightly understood The Lord hath sworn and will not repent The Lord hath sworn in truth unto David he will not turn from it SECT VI. THE third Reason from the nature of truth which is first and chief of those three celebrated conditions of an oath extant in the Prophet Jeremy inculcated by all and called by the Schoolmen the three companions of an oath viz. Truth Judgement Justice To which Truth is repugnant not only that which is false but that also which is feigned not noly a bare and evident lie but a covered one also howsoever palliated Certainly whosoever speaketh falsly unto his neighbour polluteth his speech with a lie and he hath spoken falsly unto his neighbour who hath been the occasion of deceiving his neighbour of that hope which he had rationally conceived from his speech Since therefore by simulation of either kinde a Lie is not avoided if through our fault our neighbour trusting to our words be deceived surely neither is Perjuryâ—rcided â—rcided if through our fault he be deceived by trusting unto our oathes seeing that Perjury is nothing else but a lie confirmed by an oath So that Perjury after an oath taken is the very same that a Lie is in a bare promise SECT VII THE fourth Reason from the proper end of an Oath which by that hath been said when we explained the definition of an oath appeared to be confirmation of a thing in doubt that is that as great certainty may be had of things otherwise incertain and depending upon the truth of men as is possible to be had in humane affairs For an oath is instituted of God by the light of nature for a remedy of humane defects in the search of truth that it might be the last mortal refuge for the defence of Verity when all other kindes of proof are deficient But this end would be utterly overthrown nor could any certain credit be given to men if it were lawfull for the party swearing at his pleasure so to enervate that which he verbally pronounceth to the end to obtain belief either by any tacite ambiguity in swearing or after the oath taken by any new invented and as it were posthume interpretation that it lose its whole force and become altogether ineffectuall If either of these were lawfull an oath would not be the end of all contradiction but the beginning and rather give occasion of new strifes and contradictions then determine old ones This door once opened what can be imagined so false for the defence whereof some kinde of at least diversion or subterfuge might not be found out whereby it might be delivered from the lie In the mean time how great a perversity is this that what the wise God hath ordained for an aide of truth should by impious man be turned into an instrument of falshood Verily unlesse men had rather use the sacred ordinance of God to other ends then that for which it was ordained as a pious man can hardly doe that which is the end of an oath ought likewise to be his end who taketh an oath now that is to give such assurance unto the hearer that he may become more secure and certain of the truth of a matter which was before in doubt But he who dissembleth goes about to possesse the auditors with a false belief and so not only suffereth others to be deceived which nevertheless seeing it might and ought to be hindred is against Charity but intendeth also to deceive them which besides that it is against all justice and honesty is joyned with high indignity to God and contempt of his holy name And to my understanding scarce any kinde of perjury seemeth to be more diametrically opposed to the scope of the third precept in the Decalogue or to those very words Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain then that which ariseth out of this simulation For the word Vanity to speak properly and adequately as it taketh in all that is any way false so in a kinde of peculiar manner and most properly it signifieth that which is false in such a manner as beareth some shew of truth so that if a man would expresse by a definition the nature and essence of Vanity though it be ens ratâ—onis only and hath no true essence yet by analogie with ens reale he could not do it better then by framing an Idea his imagination compounded of Nothing as the Matter and of a Lie as the Form Thus Hope which feeds it self with a lie and is at the length frustrated and brought to