not first neither doe they shew the original cause of the Conclusion for the Maior of this Syllogisme may be proued by a former and more knowne Proposition for that which is more generall is more knowne then that which is lesse generall as thus Euery liuing body is nourishable but euery sensible body is a liuing body Ergo euery sensible body is nourishable Againe it is said to be vnperfect when we proceed from the effect to the cause as when we say it is day Ergo the Sunne is vp But that demonstration which proceedeth from the cause to the effect is the more worthier because we vse therein discourse of reason and vnderstanding and in the other we onely iudge by the outward sences wherof spring two principall kindes of Methode that is to say compendious or short orders or wayes of teaching in all manner of Sciences whereof the one is called composition proceeding forward from the first to the last and the other is called resolution proceeding backward from the last to the first as hath been said before in the 〈◊〉 Methode Lib. 2. cap. 5. CHAP. XX. Of Science Opinion Ignorance Witte and of the foure Sciencial questions WHat other things are wont to bee treated of by the Schoolemen in demonstration Diuers things as what difference is betwixt Science and Opinion also they treate of the diuers kindes of Ignorance of prompt Witte and of the foure Scienciall questions What difference is betwixt Science and opinion Science as hath been said before is that which consisteth of necessary certaine and infallible Propositions and of such things as cannot be otherwise Opinion is the knowledge of things casuall which may bee sometime false and sometime true How many kindes of Ignorance doe the Schoolemen make Two that is to say absolute which of the Schoolmen is called Ignorantia negationis and ignorance by false conception which they call Ignorantia affectionis The first is when we vtterly denie to haue any knowledge of a thing at all The other is when we thinke to know that which we know not being deceiued by some false perswasion whereunto we are affected whereof it is called Ignorantia affectionis How doth Aristotle define prompt Witte called of the Latines Solertia He defineth it to be a promptnesse or readinesse in quickly finding out the proofe or cause of any thing that is in question without any studie Which be the foure Sciential questions These whether the thing be what it is how it is and wherfore it is whereof the first enquireth of the Subiect whether it be the second of the Predicate as what it is the third how it is that is to say how the Predicate is spoken of the Subiect and the fourth asketh the cause why it is spoken of the Subiect And thus much of a Syllogisme Demonstratiue now of a Syllogisme Dialecticall or probable CHAP. XXI Of a Syllogisme Dialecticall WHat is a Dialecticall Syllogisme A Dialecticall Syllogisme is that which is made of probable and credible Propositions What things are said to be probable Things probable according to Aristotle are these that seeme true to all men or to the most part of men or to all wise men or to the most part of wise men or else to the most approued wise men whereby it appeareth that things probable may be said fiue manner of wayes Shew how First those things are probable which vnto all men aswell learned as vnlearned being in their right wits doe seeme to be true as these Euery mother loueth her childe we loue them that loue vs we must doe good to them that doe good to vs. Secondly those things that seeme true to most men as these it is better for a communalty to be ruled by one Prince then by many It is not good to serue many masters at once Thirdly those things that seeme true to all wise men as these what thing soeuer is honest the same is also profitable Vertue is better then riches Fourthly those that seeme true to the most part of the wise and learned as thus the soule of man is immortall the Sunne is greater then the earth Fiftly those things that seeme true to the most approued wise men as these The world had a beginning it is better for a Prince to be loued then feared of his Subiects And generally vnder things probable are contained all true Propositions that be casuall and not implying any necessitie I say here true Propositions to exclude false Propositions whereof Sophisticall Syllogismes are made and not those which we call probable or Logicall Syllogismes and yet such Propositions be not so true in deede as those that bee required in a Syllogisme demonstratiue but onely doe seeme true ingendring a certaine opinion in mans minde doubting notwithstanding the contrary for it breedeth not a perfect knowledge as Science doth whereby the minde is of all doubts throughly resolued And note here that the Schoolemen doe make the matter whereof a Dialecticall Syllogisme doth consist to be twofold that is Materia remota in English farre off and Materia propinqua that is to say nigh or neere at hand What doth Materia remota containe These foure Dialecticall Predicates that is Definition called of the Schoolemen Terminus property generall kinde and Accident All which Predicates are before defined and are called Predicates because they are common words spoken of others But truely I see no cause why these foure Predicates should be attributed to a Dialectical Syllogisme more then to a Syllogisme demonstratiue for sure I am that as good demonstrations may be made of these as of any other Predicats What is contained vnder Materia propinqua These a Dialecticall Proposition Probleme and Position What difference is betwixt these three words Dialecticall Proposition Probleme and Position A Dialecticall Proposition is a probable question vttered with a simple Interrogatory as whether the mother loueth her childe which is no question in deede but to him that asketh A Probleme is a doubtfull question vttered with a double Interrogatory as whether the least fixed starre in the firmament be greater then the Moone or not or whether that the Sunne be bigger then the earth or not Position is a wonderfull opinion maintained by some excellent Clerke as to say that all things are but one essence or being as Melissus affirmed or that all things doe continually flowe and change as Heraclitus held or that the earth moueth and not the heauens as Copernicus supposeth onely to finde out thereby the true motions of the Planets and not for that he thought so in deed CHAP. XXII Of a sophisticall Syllogisme WHat is a Sophisticall or false Syllogisme A false Syllogisme is that which is either made of false Propositions or else of such as seeme probable and be not in deede or else of probable premisses not rightly concluding and of such Syllogismes there be three sortes the one failing in matter the other in forme the third in both When is it said to faile in
wel the two other points touching this Definition first that the Conclusion must not be all one but differing from the premisses secondly that the said Conclusion bee necessarily inferred of the premisses as in this example euery sensible body is a substance euery man is a sensible bodie Ergo euery man is a substance for if the Conclusion were thus Ergo euery sensible body is a substance or euery man is a sensible bodie the argument should not be good because the Conclusion should be all one with one of the premisses the reason why the Conclusion must needes be inferred of the premisses and so consequently follow of the same shal be declared vnto you hereafter How is a Syllogisme diuided according to the Schoolemen First they diuide it according to the diuersity of the Propositions wherofit consisteth into two kinds viz. Categoricall and Hypotheticall that is to say simple and compound calling that simple which is made of simple Propositions and that compound which is made of compound Propositions what simple and compound Propositions are hath beene before defined Againe they diuide the simple Syllogisme three maner of wayes first according to the diuersitie of the termes into a common and into a singular Syllogisme for if the terms whereof the Syllogisme consisteth bee common or generall and specially the meane terme or proofe then that Syllogisme is called a common Syllogisme but if the meane terme or proofe be Indiuiduum then that Syllogisme is said to be a singular Syllogisme called of them Syllogismus expositorius wherof we shall speake hereafter Secondly they diuide a simple Syllogisme according to the diuersitie of the figure into a perfect and vnperfect Syllogisme When is it said to be perfect When it needeth not to be altered any maner of way otherwise then it is that the consequent may manifestly appeare When is it said to be vnperfect When the Consequent doth not manifestly appeare vnlesse the Syllogisme be altered either by conuersion or transposing of the premisses whereof we shall speake hereafter Thirdly they diuide a simple Syllogisme according to the matter of the Propositions whereof it is made into three kindes that is into a Syllogisme Demonstratiue Dialecticall and Sophisticall of which three kindes wee shall speake hereafter and in their proper places so as in all the Schoolemen make foure seuerall diuisions of a Syllogisme the first according to the diuersitie of the Propositions the second according to the diuersity of the Termes the third according to the diuersitie of the figure and the fourth according to the diuersitie of the matter of the Propositions whereof wee haue spoken before and shewed how manifold such matter is but in the meane time wee will shew you of what parts a simple common Syllogisme consisteth Of how many parts doth a simple Syllogisme consist Of two that is Matter and Forme CHAP. III. Of the Matter and Forme of a simple common Syllogisme WHat things are said to bee the Matter of a Syllogisme The Matter whereof a Syllogisme is made are three terms and three Propositions which we called before Materiall principles and the Forme consisteth of figure and moode whereof we shall speak in the next Chapter Define what these three Termes be The one is called the Maior terme or Maior extremitie which is the Predicate of the question that is to be prooued the other is called the Minor terme or minor extremity which is the subiect of the question and these two Termes are knit together in the Conclusion and made to agree by helpe of a third Terme called the Meane terme or proofe What is the Meane terme It is the proofe of the question which is twice repeated before the Conclusion and not once mentioned in the same How is such proofe to be found out Foure manner of wayes that is to say by experience by quicknesse of witte by erudition and by searching the common places Giue examples of all these foure wayes 1 By experience as when we affirme that intemperance is to be fled because we know by experience that it consumeth both body and goods in vain pleasures 2 By wit as to proue that the couetousnesse of wicked men is infinite because wit and reason teacheth vs that if couetous men did either care for the Law of God or for reason they would not exceed so farre the bounds thereof 3 By erudition as to prooue that riches are not to be desired ouer-greedily but to serue necessitie because it appeareth by the doctrine of S. Paul that such as greedily seeke to be rich doe fall into temptation and into the snares of the Deuill 4 By searching the common places as when the proofe of any question is fetched from any of the common places before taught as from the generall kinde from the speciall kinde from the difference or property and such like whereof you haue had examples before Which be the three Propositions whereof a Syllogisme doth consist These three The Maior the Minor and the Conclusion Which call you the Maior That which consisteth of the Predicate of the question otherwise called the Maior terme and of the Meane or Proofe being both ioyned together in one selfe Proposition which Proposition is the whole strength of the Syllogisme for it is the cause and proofe of the Conclusion Which call you the Minor That which consisteth of the Subiect of the question called the Minor terme and of the Meane or proofe ioined together which two Propositions are called by one generall name premisses because they goe before the Conclusion What is the Conclusion It is that which consisteth of the Predicate and of the Subiect and is the question it selfe concluded Giue example For example let this bee your question whether man be a substance or not here you haue two extremes or termes wherof substance being the Predicate is the Maior terme and man being here the subiect is the minor terme now to prooue that this word Substance is properly and naturally spoken of man as of his Subiect and that you may truely knit these two extremes or termes together you must seeke out some cause or proofe otherwise called the Meane terme which being once found out the Syllogisme is soone made let the Meane terme therefore bee this word Sensible body for euery sensible body is a Substance which proofe is fetched from the generall kinde then forme your Syllogisme thus euery sensible bodie is a substance but man is a sensible bodie Ergo man is a substance Here you see that the Meane terme or proofe is twice repeated before the Conclusion that is to say in the Maior Proposition together with the Predicate of the question called the Maior terme and also in the Minor Proposition together with the subiect of the question called the Minor terme and not once mentioned in the Conclusion Thus much touching the Matter whereof a Syllogisme consisteth now of the Forme thereof CHAP. IIII. Of the Forme of a Syllogisme YOu sayd before that the Forme of a
to differ one from another for they may differ one from another in generall kinde in speciall kinde and in number in generall kinde as a sensible body and a tree in speciall kinde as a horse and an asâ—…e againe they may differ in number as the Indiuiduums that be comprehended vnder one speciall kinde as Iohn and Edward doe differ only in number Is it all one to be diuers and contrarie No for those things are said to be diuers which differ any of the waies aboue said or by any other difference be it common proper or most proper Yet few or none of these things are contrarie one to another for no substance admitteth contrarietie nor yet many accidents vnlesse it be by reason of qualitie whereunto contrarietie doth properly belong How many waies are things said to be contrarie one to another Foure manner of waies that is relatiue contrarie priuatiue and contradictorie that is to say by relation by contrarietie by priuation and by contradiction Which things are said to be opposite or contrarie by relation Those things are opposite by relation which according to their owne significations haue mutuall relation one to another neither can they be both verified of one selfe thing in one selfe respect as the father and the sonne the Lord and the bondman for one man cannot be both a father and a sonne in one respect but in diuers respects he may for euery man that hath a sonne is notwithstanding a sonne to his owne father and a father to his owne sonne Which things are said to be opposite by contrarietie Those things are said to be contrarie which being comprehended vnder one selfe kinde doe most differ one from another and yet both may be one after another in one selfe subiect meet to receiue the same because the one giueth place to the other vnlesse it be such a thing as is naturally incident to the said subiect as heat and cold being contained vnder qualitie are most contrarie one to another and yet may be one after another in mans body or any other subiect apt to receiue the same for many times heat driueth out cold and cold heat Yet in fire it is not so for heat is alwaies naturally incident to fiâ—…e and will neuer giue place to cold so long as it is fire and not extinct How are contraries diuided Of contraries some haue a meane called of the Schoolemen Contraria mediata and some haue no meane called Contraria immediata When are they said to haue a meane When the two contraries are such as neither of them is of meere necessitie in any subiect meet to receiue the same as white blacke for that subiect which is apt to receiue them both may be yellow or russet and so the subiect is neither white nor blacke When are they said to haue no meane When the one of the two contraries may be alwaies truly affirmed of any subiect apt to receiue the same as sicknesse and health for man or beast is truly said to be either sicke or whole Also vice and vertue haue no meane for a man is said to be either good or euill yet some make good and euill to haue a meane called a thing indifferent Likewise hot and cold to haue a meane that is to say luke-warme And betwixt health and sicknesse Galen maketh a meane estate that is to say neither whole nor sicke but betwixt both Which are opposites by priuation Opposites by priuation are two contraries belonging to one selfe subiect apt to receiue the same in the which subiect when the one is wanting at such time as nature doth appoint the other must needs be as sight and blindnesse in the eie hearing and deafnesse in the eare light and darknesse in the skie or in any other thing meet to receiue both Wherefore doe you adde this clause at such time as nature doth appoint Because it is not needfull that one of these opposites be in the subiect in all times as for example the whelpe which is not nine daies old though as yet hee seeth not yet is hee not said to bee blinde because Nature hath appointed him no sooner to see Which be opposite by contradiction They be two contraries hauing no meane and doe consist in contradiction that is to say in denying the one the other and such contradiction consisteth either in propositions or else in simple or single termes Giue examples of both In propositions thus Iohn is honest Iohn is not honest Plato disputeth Plato disputeth not in which kinde of propositions there is no meane of truth or falshood for of necessitie the one of them must alwaies be either true or false in such sort as both cannot be true together nor both false together In simple termes thus a man no man to know not to know to be and not to be and therefore opposites by contradiction be most contrarie and doe differ from all the rest for in all the other opposites it is easie to finde out some meane subiect whereof neither of them can be truly spoken or affirmed CHAP. XX. Of before and after called in Latine Prius Posterius HOw many waies is a thing said to be before and after Fiue manner of waies that is by time nature order honour and cause contained in these two Latine verses Tempore natura prius ordine dic honore Et causa effectis dicitur esse prior Giue examples of euery one First by time Cicero is said to be before Quintilian and Socrates before Aristotle and such like Secondly by nature that thing is said to be first or before from which the consequent cannot returne backward by which way all generall kindes are said to be before their speciall kindes and speciall kindes before their Indiuiduums for if man be then sensible body which is the generall kinde must needs be but not contrarily so likewise if Iohn be man must needs be but not contrarily for it followeth not of necessitie Because it is a sensible body Ergo it is a man or because it is a man Ergo it is Iohn Thirdly by order one thing is said to be before another as one before two and two before three letters before syllables and syllables before words and words before speech To this also appertaineth that which is said to be before by situation as in going from Norwich to London Thetford is before Newmarket and Newmarket before Ware and so forth Fourthly by honour or dignitie an Emperour is said to be before a King a King before a Duke a Duke before an Earle an Earle before a Baron c. Fiftly the cause is said to be before his effect as the rising of the Sunne is said to be before day so the difference is said to be before his speciall kinde and the speciall kinde before his propertie And these be conuertible for if it be day the Sunne must needs be vp and if the speciall difference be the speciall kinde must needs be and so contrarily To what end
serueth this manifold way of before and after To the intent that wee may the better vnderstand what hath beene said before touching opposites by relation that is to say that Relatiues are alwaies together by order of nature and not one before another but only by their fourth way that is to say by honour or worthinesse which way as Aristotle saith of all the other waies is most vnproper and least to the purpose CHAP. XXI Of the word Together called in Latine Simul HOw many waies are things said to be together Two waies that is by order of time and by order of nature First by order of time the heat and shining of the Sunne are said to bee in the Sunne together that is at one time also the Angels were created all together and at one time Secondly those things are said to be together by order of nature which haue naturall relation one to another and be conuertible neither is the one cause of the other as the father and the sonne single and double and such like and many doe adde hereunto diuers speciall kindes and differences subiect to one selfe generall kinde as man and bruit beast reasonable and vnreasonable are subiect to the generall kinde sensible body or animal CHAP. XXII Of Mouing or Motion called in Latine Motus and of the kindes thereof WHerefore is mention made here of mouing For the better vnderstanding of the Predicament Action whereunto Mouing belongeth How many kindes of motion or mouing be there Six briefly touched before in the predicament of Action that is to say generation corruption augmentation diminution alteration and mouing from place to place Define these kindes 1 Generation is a proceeding from the not being of a substance to the being of the same as from an Acorne to an Oke 2 Corruption contrariwise is a proceeding from a being to a not being as from an Oke to chips or ashes 3 Augmentation is the increasing of a greater quantitie in the whole as from a childe to a man 4 Diminution is contrariwise a decreasing or diminishing of quantitie in the whole as a body that consumeth or pineth by disease or otherwise 5 Alteration is a proceeding or changing from one qualitie into another as from hot to cold 6 Mouing from place to place is as the mouing of the sunne out of the East into the West CHAP. XXIII Of the word Habere that is to haue and how many waies it is to be vnderstood HOw many significations hath this word to haue Eight 1 First to haue a qualitie as science vice or vertue 2 To haue a quantitie as to be six seuen or eight footlong 3 To be clad as to haue a cloke or coat 4 To haue some part of the body clad or decked with some thing as the finger with a ring the necke with a chaine 5 To haue a part or member as a hand a head or foot 6 To containe as a hogshead that hath therein beere or wine 7 To possesse as to haue lands tenements or goods 8 To haue a wife which according to Aristotle is vnproperly said because nothing can be properly said to haue which is had it selfe of the same for the wife hath the man as well as the man the wife and therefore this way of hauing serueth to little purpose Here endeth the first Booke THE ART OF LOGICKE THE SECOND BOOKE CHAP. I. Of Definition HAuing hitherto sufficiently spoken of the Predicables and Predicaments and of all things belonging vnto them without the knowledge whereof no true definition nor good diuision can bee well made mee thinkes it were meet now to treat of definition and diuision What is Definition and how manifold is it Definition is a speech whereby either some name or thing is declated and it is twofold that is of a name and of a thing What is definition of a name and how manifold is it Definition of a name is a speech whereby the signification of some word is declared and it is ten-fold 1 Definition verball as when a word lesse knowne is declared by a word more knowne as thus To imitate is as much to say as to follow or to counterfet againe to accomplish is to fulfill 2 Definition by difference as He is a King which ruleth by Law but he that ruleth by force is a Tyrant 3 Definition metaphoricall or by figure as Adolescencie is the flower of mans age Good Preachers are the salt of the earth 4 Definition by contrarie as Vertue is to flee vice 5 Definition by circumlocution as The writer of the Troian warre that is to say Homer 6 Definition by example as to say that this word reasonable or vnreasonable is a speciall difference 7 Definition by want or desect as That is three quarters which lacketh a quarrer of a yard or any such like thing 8 Definition by praise or dispraise by praise as Logicke is an Art of Arts and Science of Sciences Iustice is the Queene of all vertues By dispraise as Idlenesse is the corruption or destruction of youth 9 Definition by similitude as The Sunne is the eie of the world A Citie without a Magistrate is as a ship without a Gouernour 10 Definition by Etymologie as He is rightly called goodman because he is a good man indeed and full of good workes When is definition of the name needfull to be vsed When some doubtfull word is cause of the controuersie Of the definition of a thing WHat is the definition of a thing It is a speech which declareth briefly plainly and aptly the very nature and substance of the thing which is defined How is the definition of a thing diuided Into these six kindes that is to say into definition essentiall causall by the Relatiue by the effects and offices by numbering vp of the parts and by heaping vp of accidents What is definition essentiall It is that which consisteth of the next generall kinde ioined with some speciall difference or propertie belonging to the same kinde as when I define a man to be a sensible body endued with reason or apt to speake and this is the Logicall definition most sure of all others but not easie to be made of euery thing for lacke of speciall differences and naturall properties When is it said to be a causall definition When it is made of the generall kinde and of the proper causes of the thing defined How many chiefe kindes of causes be there Foure that is matter forme cause efficient and end How define you matter Matter is that whereof any thing is made as cloth is the matter whereof a cloake or coat is made and wooll is the matter of cloth What is Forme Forme is the shape whereof any thing taketh both his being and his name and therefore the Schoolemen doe define forme to be that which giueth a being to any thing be it naturall or artificiall as in the examples before recited the coat or cloake hath both his being and name of the shape which it hath and
with the good thou shalt be good and with the froward thou shalt learne frowardnesse What bee the Maxims of this place If one thing being put to another endueth the same with any quality that thing must needes haue the same qualitie it selfe I doe place this place next to action because it seemeth to me that it appertaineth to action Of common Accidents WHat cast yee common Accidents I call those common Accidents such things as are either alwaies or for the most part so knit together as the one goeth before or after the other or els accompany each one the other whereof some are necessarie and some probable How may we reason from the Necessarie Both affirmatiuely and negatiuely and first affirmatiuely by the latter part thus This Appletree hath flowers Ergo it hath budded It hath fruit Ergo it hath both budded and flowred This woman is brought to bed of a childe Ergo she hath conceiued Negatiuely by the former part thus This woman neuer conceiued Ergo she can bring forth no childe This man neuer studied Ergo he is not learned What be the maxims of this place If the latter be the former must needs goe before and if the former were not the latter cannot be Of Probable Accidents Coniectures Presumptions Signes and Circumstances HOw may we reason from Probable Accidents From Probable Accidents you may reason Affirmatiuely thus The feast of Bacehus is this day celebrated Ergo there will bee many drunken this day The generall Sessions are holden this day Ergo there will be some hanged What be the maxims of this place If the latter be it is likely that the former went before and if the former bee it is like enough the latter may sollow but you must beware in reasoning from this place that you fetch not your argument from such Accidents as chance but seldome or be indifferent for such be neither necessarie nor probable but sophisticall and fallible as to reason thus Shee is a faire woman Ergo she is vnchast Whereto serueth the place of common Accidents In the Iudiciall kinde it helpeth greatly to proue the fact In the Demonstratiue kinde to praise or dispraise In the Deliberatiue kinde to perswade or disswade and to gather together all Coniectures meete for the purpose and therefore this place is much vsed of natural Philosophers to proue things by naturall signes or by Physiognomie also of Astrologers â—…o proue dearth mortalitie and such like by wonders and monsters as by blazing starres and such like impressions Also it is much vsed of Chiromancers Southsayers and such as vse to iudge by Coniectures and therefore this place extendeth very farre and serueth to many vses Hitherto also are referred the places of circumstances and chiefely of time and place from whence good arguments may be fetched Of Time HOw are arguments fetched from time Negatiuely thus Pythag was not borne in Numa Pompilius time Ergo Numa was not Pythagoras scholler The ceremoniall lawes of Moses were made for a certaine time Ergo after that time they doe not bind What be the Maxims of this place Nothing can bee without time for if time bee taken away the thing also must needs faile Of Place HOw are arguments fetched from place Negatiuely thus Cicero was not at Rome when Iulius Caesar was slaine Ergo Cicero slew him not What is the maxime of this place No certain body or thing is without a place neither is one bodie at one time in diuers places and thus much touching inward places Of outward Places and first of Causes WHich be outward Places Outward places bee those which appertaine to the thing and yet doe not cleaue thereunto of which places the first is of Causes and Effects What is a Cause A Cause is that by vertue wherof another thing followeth How many chiefe kindes of Causes be there Foure that is to say the Cause Efficient the end matter and shape of the two last whereof we haue spoken before because they be inward places and doe belong to the Substance of the thing and therefore we haue to deale onely here with the cause Efficient and end Of the Cause Efficient WHat is that cause Efficient and how is it deuided Cause Efficient is that from whence proceedeth the first beginning of any thing that is made or done and is the maker thereof As for example the Carpenter is the Cause Efficient of the house which he maketh and so is euery Artificer of his owne worke Causes Efficient are deuided into two kinds that is to say Cause Absolute and Cause Adiuuant Cause Absolute worketh by his owne force and vertue as the fire that burneth Cause Adiuuant worketh not by himselfe but is a helper and such cause is sometime principall as vertue is a Principall Cause of blessed life and sometime not Principal as the gifts of the body and of fortune be helpers to the happy life but not Principall Causes thereof Againe of Causes some are of Necessitie without which the thing cannot be made as the Instrument or matter and some are said not to be of Necessitie as when we say The speaking of truth causeth hatred and yet not of Necessitie Also of Causes Efficient some be Vniuersall and some Particular as the Eclipse or euill Coniunction of certaine Planets is the Vniuersal cause of Pestilence but the corruption of humours in mans body is the particular cause thereof Againe of causes some bee called of the Latins Propinquae that is to say nigh vnto the Effect as the father and mother be the nighest Causes of Generation of Children And some be called Remotae that is to say remoued causes which be further of as the Grandsâ—…rs and Grandames of the said children Moreouer of Causes Efficient some work by a certaine naturall Necessity as those that lack choise and iudgement as fire that burneth and the Sun that shineth and all other naturall things that doe work by their own force and vertue Some againe do work by counsell reason and free-will as men Angels and most chiefely God himselfe How may we reason from the Efficient Cause to the Effect From the necessarie Efficient Cause you may reason both Affirmatiuely and Negatiuely Affirmatiuely thus The Sun is lately gone downe Ergo it is twilight Negatiuely thus The Sunne was not vp when Troy was destroyed Ergo Troy was not destroyed in the day time but from the Efficient not Necessarie you can reason but onely Affirmatiuely thus He is slaine Ergo he is dead but you cannot say he is not slaine Ergo he is not dead What be the maxims of this Place The Necessarie Cause Efficient not letted the Effect must needs follow as if he hath drunken poison he must needs die But if such Cause faileth the effect also must needs faile as the Sunne is not vp Ergo it is not day He neuer studied Ergo he is not learned to which place may be referred the places of occasion Instrument Meane and Generation How may we reason
there is but one naturall mouing and such like The Principles Practiue bee those naturall knowledges whereby mens manners are gouerned for by this naturall light we know the difference betwixt good and euill As for example these be Principles Practiue God is to be honored and obeyed Iustice is to be embraced ciuill societie is to be maintained and the disturbers thereof to be punished these and such like Propositions are naturally receiued of all men as infallible verities Againe of Principles some be called Generall and some Proper The Generall be those that may be applied to many Sciences as these the whole is more then any of his parts if equall be taken from equall equall doe remaine and such like The proper Principles bee those that are properly belonging to some one certaine Science as a line to be a length without breadth is a principle of Geometrie Againe this proposition euery thing is or is not is a principle of Logick and to be short euery Science hath his proper principles of which some bee called dignities or Maximes and some Positions Wherefore are they called Dignities or Maximes For that they are worthy to be credited for their selfe sake for so soone as we heare them in such speech as we vnderstand wee naturally know them to bee true without any further proofe as these Take equall from equall and equall will remaine the whole is more then any of his parts c. What be Positions Positions be those principles which although they need no other proofe yet they be not so easily vnderstood of all men at the first vttering as Maximes bee for in these besides the knowledge of the termes it is needfull to haue also some experience as in these Principles Euery thing that is compounded of matter and forme is moueable whatsoeuer is heauie tendeth naturally downeward and whatsoeuer is light tendeth vpwards Againe of Positions some are called Definitions and some Suppositions and of Suppositions some are called Petitions called in Latine Postulata and some Suppositions assumpted Define these kindes 1 Definition sheweth what the thing is 2 Supposition is that which supposeth a thing to be or not to be as the Geometricians do suppose that there is Punctum that is to say a pricke or a thing indiuisible hauing neither length bredth nor depth 3 Petition is a Proposition asked and granted to be true as this is a petition in Geometry that a man may draw a right line from one point to another 4 Supposition assumpted is when a manifest supposition is assumpted to proue another thing withall as to proue that demonstration consisteth of true Propositions the disputer will assumpt this assertion which saith that of false things there is no certaine knowledge and trueth is not knowne but of true things What is the third thing wherof the certaintie of mans knowledge dependeth It is the knowledge that man hath in iudging of consequents which is not altogether artificiall but partly naturall for God thought it not sufficient for mans behoofe to know simple Propositions as principles or common conceptions gotten by experience vnlesse hee could also compare them together and ioyne things like and agreeable together and seuer things vnlike and disagreeing one from another and by such comparison and composition to finde out things before not knowne and to the intent wee should not erre or wander out of the right way God hath shewed vs an order and prescribed certain bounds and limits of necessitie to be obserued in such composition which bounds are Syllogismes rightly made for so do the Consequents plainly appeare And because that proportions are knowne by nature it shall not be amisse to giue you an example in numbers for three knowne numbers being placed in true order of a Syllogisme a fourth number vnknowne of necessitie doth follow as in this question If one pound of waxe be worth a groat what is tenne pound of waxe worth Marrie ten groates which is prooued by a Syllogisme in this manner Euery pound of waxe is worth a groat but here is ten pound of waxe Ergo they are worth ten groats and like as in these kindes of Syllogismes Arithmeticall the proportion which is to be iudged by mans naturall knowledge doth shewe the Consequent to be infallible euen so the Consequents in other Syllogismes are shewed to be infallible by such demonstrations as are not farre fetched or doubtfull but are manifest plaine and euident CHAP. XIX Of the two kindes of Demonstration HOw doe the Schoolemen diuide Demonstration Into two that is perfect and vnperfect and they call the perfect demonstratio propter quid and the vnperfect demonstratio quia est It is perfect when it proceedeth from the proper cause to the effect called of the Schoolemen à priore for in that demonstration the Antecedent containeth the proper and true cause of the consequent as when we say the Sun is vp Ergo it is day What is to be obserued in a perfect Demonstration That the Predicate of the Conclusion which is also Predicate in the Maior be first properly alwayes and that really and accidentally incident to the subiect of the Maior and to euery thing contained vnder the same which subiect must bee some generall kind and the very meane or proofe of your conclusion As for example if you would prooue a Cocke to be a feathered fowle it were not a sufficient demonstration to say that euery flying beast is a feathered fowle for some beastes flie that haue no feathers as Backs that flie in the night season But if you say that euery bird is a feathered fowle euery Cocke is a bird Ergo euery Cocke is a feathered fowle you shall make a perfect demonstration because the Subiect and Predicate of the Maior haue such conditions as are before required for this Maior sheweth the thing to be and also wherfore it is which is done so often as the Predicate is the true definition of the Subiect as when I say Euery man is a sensible body endued with reason or else some chiefe part of the definition as when I say Euery man is endued with reason as hath been said before for euery good demonstration is either made of a true definition or taken frō the general kind special kind or else from the speciall difference or propertie yea and sometime they may bee taken out of the whole and of the parts of the proper causes and effects of perpetual adiacents otherwise called common accidents of proper acts of contrarieties and of diuine authoritie whereof you haue had examples before in the treatise of places and seates of arguments When is it said to be an vnperfect Demonstration When the premisses are true implying a true Consequent but yet are not first neither doe they shew the originall cause of the Conclusion as in this example Euery sensible body is nourishable but euery man is a sensible body Ergo euery man is nourishable here though the premisses be true Propositions yet they be